Units of Memory
It is an unfortunate but unavoidable fact that the most abstruse technological concepts must be understood when discussing computers at even a beginner's level. A case in point is the need to understand base two arithmetic to make sense of software memory requirements.
A computer numeric processor is made up of many decision circuits, each of which may be either off or on. These two states are represented by a zero or one. In order to count higher than one, such bits (BInary digiTS) are strung together. A group of eight is known as a byte (techno-weenies are known for holding puns in high regard). One byte can represent numbers from zero (00000000) to 255 (11111111), or 2^8 = 256 distinct states. (The carat stands in for raising the first number to the exponent of the second.) Of course, bytes may also be combined to represent larger numbers. The computer represents all numbers and characters internally in this fashion.
On a practical scale, memory is measured in kilobytes (KB) or megabytes (MB). A kilobyte is not, as one might at first expect, 1000 bytes. Rather, the correct sum is 2^10 = 1024 bytes. Likewise, a megabyte is not 1000^2 = 1,000,000 bytes, but instead 1024^2 = 1,048,576 bytes. This is a significant difference. By the time we get to a gigabyte (1024^3 bytes), the difference between the base two and base ten amounts is almost 71 MB.
It is common for both computer memory and disk space to be measured in these units; it's important not to confuse the two. "640 KB RAM" refers to the amount of main memory the computer has available to its CPU. "40 MB disk" refers to the amount of space available for the storage of program files, data, and other permanent information.
Introduction
The Electronic Labyrinth is a study of the implications of hypertext for creative writers looking to move beyond traditional notions of linearity.
Our project evaluates hypertext and its potential for use by literary artists in three ways:
- By placing the development of hypertext in the context of the literary tradition of non-linear approaches to narrative. This context provides a means of re-evaluating the concept of the book in the age of electronic text. Specific points of investigation include Cortázar's Hopscotch, Nabokov's Pale Fire, Pavic's Dictionary of the Khazars, and Sterne's Tristram Shandy.
- By investigating literary works created specifically for computerized hypertext. These include Joyce's Afternoon, A Story, McDaid's Uncle Buddy's Phantom Funhouse, and Wilmott's Everglade.
- By evaluating the hardware platforms and software environments available to writers. Criteria include ease of use, availability, methods of distribution and publication, and the tools available to the writer and reader. Our emphasis is placed on the assumptions each environment makes of the writing and reading processes, the metaphors reinforced by the environment, and the freedom allowed the writer to explore new forms. We have focused on IBM-compatible and Apple hardware platforms, and reviewed such software as Eastgate System's Storyspace, Claris' HyperCard, IBM's Linkway, and Ntergaid's Hyperwriter.
About The Authors
Links
Since this document was originally designed to be self-contained, it contains few links to external documents. To provide for further exploration of hypertext theory and practice, visit Hyperizons, a comprehensive master list.
Please do not ask us to link to your site. That is not the function of this document.
Mirror Site
The Electronic Labyrinth is mirrored at the University of Virginia for those who are closer to that site or experience slow browsing here.
Disclaimer
The Electronic Labyrinth presents the results of a research project mostly undertaken in 1993. Many recent texts, authoring systems and theoretical approaches are not covered. In particular, please be aware that any vendors mentioned herein could very well have completely different versions of their products available or may even be out of business. Contact the company in question for up-to-date information. Please do not ask us about proprietary hardware and software.
Despite the dated nature of some of the contents, we have decided to keep The Electronic Labyrinth available in its original form.
Contact Information
Acknowledgements
This project was based on Hypertext Fiction and the Literary Artist, research made possible through the assistance of the Canada Council for the Arts. Copyright is as stated at the bottom of each page.
The Electronic Labyrinth was originally written in 1993 and adapted for the World-Wide Web in November 1995. It was initially hosted at the University of Alberta, and then at the University of Victoria from August 1997 to July 2000.
Thanks for help in days gone by to: the University of Western Ontario Philosophy Department, William McLaughlin, Andrew Mactavish, and Katherine Hajer. We kindly acknowledge all who have contributed information, criticism, and materials for review.
The Small Print
All brand names and product names used in this study are trademarks, trade names, or registered trademarks of their respective holders, and are used for identification purposes only.
The authors have used their best efforts in preparing this study. They make no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work or the materials included with it, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose, and shall in no event be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
How Much Memory Does My Computer Have?
KB, MB, GB Explained
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If you feel confused by how much memory and storage space your computer actually has or you’re baffled by KB, MB and GBs, it’s not surprising. It’s not as straightforward as you’d think. There are two different ways of expressing the storage space and memory of your computer. This is a simplified explanation of what’s going on, but if you don’t want the math behind the answer, you can skip straight to the end.Understanding Binary vs. Decimal Numbers
First, a brief math lesson. We do our day-to-day math in a decimal system. The decimal system has ten digits (0-9) that we use to express all of our numbers. Because computers are made from electrical components that are either on or off, they use a binary system for storage and memory. The binary system has only two digits (0 & 1) that are used to express numerical values. For example, to get to the decimal number 4 in binary you would count like this: 00,01,10,11. If you want to go higher than that, you need more digits.
What’s All This About Bits and Bytes?
Bit
A bit is the smallest increment of storage on a computer. Imagine each bit is like a light bulb. Each one is either on or off, so it can have one of two values (either 0 or 1). Byte
A byte is a string of 8 bits (eight light bulbs in a row). A byte is basically the smallest unit of data that can be processed on your family computer. As such, storage measurements are always done in bytes rather than bits. The largest decimal value that can be represented by a byte is 28 (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x2 x2) or 256. For more information on binary numbers, including how to convert them to decimal, please see the resource area below.Kilobyte (KB)
A kilobyte in binary is 1024 bytes(210), but it also used to refer to 1000 bytes (the decimal interpretation). This is where things start to get really confusing! You can see that a binary KB is slightly bigger than a decimal KB.Megabyte (MB)
A megabyte in binary is 1,048,576 (220) bytes. In decimal it’s 1,000,000 bytes (106). Gigabyte (GB)
A gigabyte is either 230 (1073741824) bytes or 109 (1 billion) bytes. By now the difference between the binary version and the decimal version is quite significant.So How Much Memory/Storage Do I Have?
The biggest reason that people get confused is that sometimes manufacturers provide information in decimal and sometimes they provide it in binary. Hard drives, flash drives and other storage devices are usually labeled in decimal. Memory (such as RAM) and software typically provide binary values. Since 1GB in binary is bigger than 1GB in decimal, the rest of us are often confused about how much space we’re actually getting/using. And worse, your computer may say it has an 80GB hard drive, but your operating system (which reports in binary!) will tell you that it’s actually a less (by ~7-8 GB).The easiest solution to this issue is to just ignore it as much as possible. When you purchase a storage device, remember that you’re getting slightly less than you think and plan accordingly. Basically, if you have 100 GB in files to store or software to install, you’ll need a hard drive with at least 110 GB of space.
